Organizations that fail to plan are planning to fail Essay

Currently, the numerous organizations pour huge sums of capitals into competitive market in order to get a larger market share and seek more financial profits. Some of them are success, while others are eliminated with a huge financial loss by the fierce competition. However, the main reason why those companies failed is nothing but not having an all-round strategic planning. This essay will discuss that a company with an all-round planning in terms of external and internal environment of the business will help businesses achieve company’s objectives and survive from the intensive competition of the capital market. Planning for internal environment mainly based on company’s weakness and strength can increase the working efficiency and coordination for the purpose of reducing in the operation cost associated with production mistakes, while planning for the external in terms of company’s threats and opportunities can help the business effectively analyze local mark et and expand company in order to gain more financial benefits. It is undeniable that a formal planning for a company makes contributions to achieving organization’s objective under the assumption of unchanged and predictable environment (Robbins et al. 2012 p.87). However, it is commonly believed that the capital market is changeable and unpredictable (Kumar 2011, p.18). As a result, a well-constructed plan might not be able to fit in every circumstance of business. Some negative discussions on a formal planning have been issued recently (Robbins 2012, p.87). Firstly, a formal planning may create some rigidity to the working environment that makes management lack flexibility and selectivity, which leads managers to be simply tied on a specific course of action (Robbins 2012, p.87). Secondly, a formal planning may restrict staff’s creativity and intuition. As a company needs someone’s creativity and innovation to be improved, the result of formal planning may reduce the vision to an inflexible company routine, which will be a receipt of disaster (Robbins 2012, p.87). Thirdly, planning may limit managers’ strategic vision. There is a tendency that a planning especially for the strategic performance of business only focuses on how to maximize organization financial benefits in the capital market. As a result, the managers may simply focus on the field the company currently has, rather than re-creation or reinvention in aims of company expansion in the future (Robbins 2012,  p.87). Fourthly, a formal planning can enhance success that maybe a receipt of failure. According to Robins (2012, p.87), managers may follow some precedential business cases that succeed before. Thereby, it is hard and unwilling for them to discard the successful experience of precedents when make a plan for the company. However, this plan may keep managers from doing things in a new way that would be even more successful because successful experience cannot work in every company environment, especially in current uncertain and changeable capital market (Robbins 2012, p.87). However, for the business long-term success, the importance of strategic planning in terms of internal for a business is incredibly meaningful (Topfer 2011, para.1). Firstly, an internally focused planning can provide an internal analysis of organization that considers internal weakness of company (Ingram 2014, para.3). Through an internal management planning, managers of a company can immediately identify the lack of company’s abilities and resources and then analyze the weaknesses may exist in the future development at the first beginning of a company’s operation, such as the staff skill limitation, the limitation of its product design or the shortage of technical and financial support (Flott 1997, pp.42-3). Thus, remedial measures, such as employing higher educated employees or improvement of manufactory equipment, can be timely acted. Consequently, financial loss or resources shortage can be effectively avoided during the operation (Flott 1997, p.43). Secondly, an internally focused planning plays an effective role in helping managers identify company strengths as well (Robbins et al. 2012, p.90). Analyzing company strengths by finding out any unique resource or any performance the business does better than other companies, managers are able to discover some competitive advantages (Ingram 2012, para.5). For instance, the world largest mobile company, Apple, they know that they have abundant financial strengths, thus they fully take financial advantages by making considerable investment over $160 million annually in the area of innovation and design of products (Clark 2014, para.1). As a result, Apple attracts millions of loyal customers around the world and makes them willing to purchase the products constantly because of the highest quality and best performance of products (Clark 2014, para.2). Thirdly, internal planning helps managers do some internal adjustment for increasing working efficiency. For instance, by thoroughly analyzing staff working capabilities  in terms of education level, work experience and overall competence, managers can optimize the utilization of human resources. Effectively deploying different human resources into different working departments, where is suitable for each employee, can maximize their strengths in order to achieve higher work efficiency and coordination (Loton 2007, p.373). As a result, the errors of production and wastage that caused by staff’s working against during the operation can be substantially avoided and declined. In other words that the operation cost can be reduced and keep company moving effectively towards its objective (Robbins et al. 2012, p.86). Fourthly, it is also helpful for managers to determine whether the operation of organization is on the right track and check how far they have drifted away from the original objective by an internal planning (Topfer 2011, para.4). Internal planning is a reference point t hat can allow managers to return to any point of operation once the mistakes happened (Topfer 2011, para.3). The functions of a strategic planning which externally focused are critical for company’s success as well. An external planning can provide an analysis that examines the threats and opportunities of company that independently exists in the external environment (Olsen 2010, para.10). According to Olsen (2010, para.10), the threats are obstacles that prevent organization from achieving its objectives and have negative effects on future development in terms of external; while the opportunities refer to a positive condition in the external environment that will produce constructive contributions on organization’s success. Through analyzing company’s threats when makes an externally focused plan, managers are able to clearly identify, for instance, what the supply and cost of labor is in the location where operates and whether the labor cost will significantly affect the profit of products (Robbins et al. 2012, p.87). A remarkable example of this is Apple Company. Apple has currently occupied the market of mobile phone over 60%, so a large amount of labor force is required during the production (Worstall 2013, para.2). In order to have a lower labor cost, the production planning center of Apple decided that settled the factories into Asian countries because Asia have a relatively lower labor cost and plenty of labor supply (Worstall 2013, para.1). A latest statistical data has been carried out that Apple has to pay more $4.2 billion to the production staff if Apple manufactures iPhone in the US rather than in Asia (Worstall 2013, para.1).  So, it is obvious that a company analyzing its external condition when makes an external plan is crucial to its objectives in terms of financial benefits. Furthermore, having an external plan is helpful for managers to find out the company’s opportunities, such as a market gap that no organization is currently serving, a new field that can be stepped in for the purpose of exploring market to seek more financial return and developmental opportunities (Ingram 2012, paras 6-7). After analyze external environment of company, managers can timely know what pro ducts can affect market share and what changes are in consumers favor that may increase the sale of products (Ingram 2012, para.6). As a result, effective adjustments in terms of improvement and innovation of products and can be carried out in order to remain company’s long-term competiveness in the market and meet the customers’ demand immediately (Ingram 2012, para.6). Hence, the sales of product can be increased and more financial profits can be brought out. In conclusion, although having a formal planning may bring some negative effects on company’s success, a well-constructed strategic plan in terms of internally focused and externally focused makes contribution to its financial profit and surviving from the market competition. To an internal plan, combining company’s industry status with its strength, it can help company enhance its market position and do some positive adjustment in order to get a higher working efficiency and coordination, while identifying company’s weakness, such as scarcity of resources, some remedial measures can be acted in advance in order to avoid financial loss in the further development. To an external plan, analyzing company’s opportunities can help business explore new market in order to reach developmental potential. At the same time, an external plan can provide an external analysis that assist managers with identifying company’s threats, such as labor cost and supply. According to Apple’s example, choosing a most beneficial manufactory location not only can have a sufficient labor supply but also save plenty of labor cost. Overall, adhering a strategic plan both internally and externally for a company is constructive and meaningful in its long-term success. Reference List Flott, LW 1997, ‘Quality Control: Corporate Planning’, Elsevier Science, July, pp.42-5. Ingram, D 2014, ‘Internal & External Strategic Plan Development’, Chron, viewed 21 April 2014, . Kumar, B 2011, Capital Market, Anurag Jain, New Delhi, India. Loton, C 2007, ‘Using good business planning to ensure good governance’, Keep Good Companies, July, pp.372-5. Olsen, E 2010, ‘Internal & External Analysis’, OnStrategy, 5 April, viewed 1 May 2014, . Robbins, S, DeCenzo, D, Coulter, M & Woods, M 2012, Management: The Essentials, 1st edn, Pearson, Australia. Topfer, S 2011, ‘The Importance of Business Planning’, NASDAQ, 25 February, viewed 20 April 2014, . Worstall, T 2013, ‘If Apple Brought iPhone Manufacturing To The US It Would Cost Them $4.2 billion’, Forbes, 25 September, viewed 2 May 2014, .

Oliver Twist by Charles Dickens Essay

Oliver Twist is a novel written by Charles Dickens. The novel follows an orphan boy named Oliver through many trials and tribulations he must endure. Through this he does have a few kind, compassionate, and stable people to rely on. Two of the most important were Nancy and Rose Maylie. Within this essay I will give a detailed description of both Rose and Nancy and also compare and contrast the two. First I would like to introduce you to Nancy. Nancy is the only female character of Fagin’s group. Being a part of this group Nancy must steal from the rich in order to make money for basic necessities and keep her relationships with the crew. This lifestyle puts he in the criminal social class or otherwise know as the lowest of the low social class. Nancy, much like Oliver, was also an orphan growing up. She acquires no formal education; therefore she can neither read nor write. Even though Nancy was not blessed with the luxury of the basic upbringing, she maintains very impressive street smarts. She displays this when bringing stolen goods to Fagin that are bundled like a baby so it is not witnessed as suspicious. Nancy may have been a criminal but she had a great heart. She had a great relationship with all of Fagin’s boys and cared for all of them. She also cared greatly for her boyfriend Bill Sikes who, in my opinion, did not return this love. Bill was very abusive towards Nancy and seemed to threaten her on a regular basis. When confronted with the question, â€Å"Do you love me Bill?† by Nancy, he did not directly answer and proceeded to ignore the question. In the end it was also Bill who ended up murdering Nancy. Apparently, Bill Sikes thought Nancy telling Mr. Brownlow and Rose where to find Oliver was punishable by death. By following through with the action of â€Å"peaching†, Nancy shows how much she truly cares about Oliver. Another major character in Oliver’s life was Rose Maylie. Rose Maylie was a ward of Mr. Brownlow, therefore also making her an orphan. Mr. Brownlow was an Upper Middle Class man, which made Rose and Upper Middle Class â€Å"Victorian woman.† She, like many others from her social class, was well educated. She even was very talented at playing the piano. Mr. Brownlow’s grandson, Edward, wanted to marry Rose. Rose, seeing that Edward’s thinking was wrong, expressed to him how against the idea she was; something very uncommon for that day in age. Oliver was brought into the home by Mr. Brownlow after Oliver was wrongfully accused of pick pocketing him. While Oliver is changing into clean, more appropriate clothing, Rose notices scars on Oliver’s back due to beatings. From then on Rose feel obligated to protect poor Oliver. She becomes somewhat of a sister figure to him. Throughout the novel Rose protects and defends Oliver. As you can see Nancy and Rose are different in many ways. However, both women do have a few things in common. Rose and Nancy both had very different social classes.

Campari Case

CAMPARI CASE STUDY Andrea Dimichele 4105507 QUESTIONS: * What are the functional areas in the supply chain function and which is the guiding element of the whole function? * What may be the advantages and the disadvantages of a stable production cycle producing batches of large dimensions? * How do Campari's distribution flows work and which logics do they satisfy? * What is the role of customer service and what do the people involved in this function do? * How does the online auction system work? The functional areas in the supply chain of Campari are: Procurement of materials Production: sites where the products are made and ready to the first delivery, to the distribution center there are 13 all over the world. Logistics and transports: that is probably the guiding element of the whole supply chain. A huge products portfolio let Campari’s group to focus the attention on the distribution process. It is split in two different channels, the modern one (GDO, DO) and the traditi onal one (wholesalers, liquor stores and ho. e. ca day and night). Certain areas let Campari to distribute its products directly to customers such as disco for spirit segment or directly to restaurants for Wine segment (i. e. Sella ; Mosca). Distribution strategy so is fundamental to GARANTIRE a constant and efficient position and to be close to customers. For this reason Campari group in Italy decide to outsource this process of supply chain. In fact the central distribution center is owned by ‘’Gruppo Zanardo’’. As DonatellaRampinelli, Customer management director, highlight ‘’ the choice to outsource the distribution process in founded on logics of efficiency and EFFICACIA. Until 1991 distribution process was owned by Campari but this generate very high cost for the company so starting from 1995 they decide to outsource the process (also more focused in GDO channel) and this permit also to maximizing the effect on warehouse management ( sto cking, order management, inventory). Export Management: that involve foreign order, management of commercial border and custom paperwork and physical delivery management.Administrative: that involve administrative and physical paperwork related to import/export, management of warehouses, or the introduction of new products (custom codes and quantification of taxes). Customer management * The advantages of having a stable production cycle producing batches of large dimensions is that it could facilitate planning of production, warehouses, distribution, and order. Standardization of the process. Another could be cost saving in terms of production process, using economies of scale or the fully disponibilita of products in order to maintain customer loyalty.On the other hand disadvantages are related to higher stock and warehouse costs (also due to taxes) †¦.. * The distribution process start from the order of the customer, it could be inserted directly from headquarters (fax-mail) or arrive from the SAP CIS through EDI (electronic data interchange) or via CRM (customer relationship management) through the sales force. The process of distribution end with the shipment that could be shipped from production plants directly to customer or passing through distribution centers.The process of shipment as already said is outsourced in order to reduce transportation costs, in order to obtain better quality and have on time information on the status of deliveries. Obtaining information in real time about the status of the shipment is fundamental in order to be able to inform the customer in real time and also in order to a better planning of next shipment, warehouses and problem solving (returns, substitutions, delays, urgencies, and so on). * Customer service†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ How does the online auction system work? *

Business Report On Coca-cola Company Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Business Report On Coca-cola Company - Essay Example Three factors which will be discussed in the report will be addressing the erosion of the profitability of the company. The factors include profit and nonprofit competition, actual or threat of potential entry and competition by products from outside the company. The report will also address the extent to which the coca-cola company has economic power to charge higher prices. Last the report will detail the strategies the company has employed to remain competitive in the market. Profit is the financial benefit realized when the difference between income and expenses yields an amount that is capable of sustaining the business activity. Profitability therefore is measured using income and expenses and this is the primary goal on any business venture. Price and non price competition, actual or threat of potential entry by competitors and competing products from outside the company are the immediate concerns in this context and therefore are adequately elaborated. The purpose of this report is to provide information for the management of the coca-cola and affiliates about the extent to which price or non price competition, actual or potential threat to entry in the industry by competitors and competing products from outside the company erode the profitability of coca-cola company. The report also addresses the extent to which the company have economic power to charge higher prices and lastly, strategies the company has put forth to remain competitive in the market. ... INTRODUCTION The purpose of this report is to provide information for the management of the coca-cola and affiliates about the extent to which price or non price competition, actual or potential threat to entry in the industry by competitors and competing products from outside the company erode the profitability of coca-cola company. The report also addresses the extent to which the company have economic power to charge higher prices and lastly, strategies the company has put forth to remain competitive in the market. Coca-cola Company is a multinational business whose headquarters is in America. Coca-cola manufactures, markets, retails and wholesales non alcoholic beverages and concentrates. The company was founded by Assa Griggs candler in 1892 and its headquarters based in Atlanta,CA. Ever since, the company has been on operation despite numerous challenges she has faced. Five major topics make up this report. To what extent does price or non price competition erode the profitabil ity of the company? To what extent does actual or potential threat erode the profitability of the company? To what extent does competing products from outside the company erode the profitability of the company? To what extent does Coca-Cola Company have economic power to charge higher prices? The strategies the coca-cola company has used to remain competitive in the ever changing global community. All these factors are discussed elaborately and adequately. PRICE AND NON-PRICE COMPETITION. Price competition is a situation where a company cuts the price of the product and instead offers it at a lower rate than usual. The price cut could be due to the company’s own volition or as a

Pneumonia Dq question Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Pneumonia Dq question - Assignment Example The predisposing factors for mucormycosis are kartoacidosis, uncontrolled diabetes mellitus, solid tumors, and renal failure. Pulmonary mucormycosis generally takes place inhaling the fungal sporangiospores. The medical interventions for treating mucormycosis involve 3-pronged integration of surgical and medical approaches, together with addressing predisposing underlying conditions (Spellberg & Edwards, 2012). 2. Some laboratory test values are abnormal. The pH value is 7.5 and this figure is high. The high pH values are abnormal and are mainly experienced among patients with high blood pressure (Kontoyiannis & Lewis, 2013). PaO2 is also abnormally low at 59mmHg. This illustrates a condition that is common among patients having pheumonia. 3. Three treatments are applied in patients with pulmonary mucormycosis. The treatments are; hyperbaric oxygen therapy, surgery and step down therapy. Hyperbaric oxygen therapy applies high concentration of oxygen, which hinders the development of mucorales in vitro. Surgery is also a treatment option. Sinus lesions are very significant and should be done with minimal delay, due to the aggressive characteristic of the mucor infection. Step down therapy entails treatment of parenteral lipid amphotericin B. The treatment is antifungal. The medications involve usage of antifungal agents. Classic antibiotics like echinocandins are commonly used. Amphotericin B is also applied as liposomal formulations, with the aim of minimizing toxicity (Bitar & Van,

To explore the association between congestive heart failure (CHF) and Essay

To explore the association between congestive heart failure (CHF) and household income at the federal poverty level in individuals between the ages 20 and Up - Essay Example Once an individual is poor, equitable access to preventive and remedial health for congestive heart failure (CHF) becomes a challenge (He et al, 2001). The emergence of limited small scale programs which target the address of social and health needs like CHF of the poor individuals in the society is encouraging. However the commitment of the national, state, provincial and local levels supposed to implement the policies has been inadequate (Walsh & Warren, 1980). These organs have failed to dedicate resources and funds required to expand such individual level interventions into comprehensive programs which can integrate preventions and services as well as deliver sustainable programs especially to patients with congestive heart failure (CHF) of the federal poverty level in individuals from the age of 20 and above (Braveman, 2010). People below 20 years living with this condition often receive free medical interventions from bodies like UNICEF and WHO because they are classified as ch ildren. Hence, those living with the condition and are 20 years and above have to struggle to meet their medical bills. It becomes a challenge to those from poor households because they cannot afford the costs (Lang et al, 1997). The long term solutions supposed to address the connection between poverty and CHF lie in eradicating poverty and reversing the tendency of our health care systems which discriminate against those from federal poverty levels. The mortality rates of the poor with CHF are estimated to be 3-5 times greater as compared to those with good income earnings. CHF is a major cause of mortality in poor adults from the age of 45 to 64 years (Singh & Singh, 2008). The rate is three times higher in poor individuals aged 20 to 44 years when compared to an age-matched population from good income earning population. Increased CHF mortality rates among the poor can be attributed to a complex chain between unique and traditional rates. Some

Problem of computer with students Research Paper

Problem of computer with students - Research Paper Example The following research has identified several major issues that student raise in regard to usage of computers and has briefly touched on their solutions. There is also evidence that these problems differ at times with gender and age. These problems need to be solved or mitigated for benefits of computers to be maximized in the learning process. Problems of Computers Introduction A computer is an electronic  device for processing information and performing calculations. It follows a program to perform sequences of mathematical and logical  operations. Computers are vital tools in learning. Because of this, many governmental and non-governmental institutions campaign for increased integration of computing into learning. Majority students also use computers since they make studying more efficient, easy and interactive. Even with verifiable benefits of computing in learning, there are various huddles associated with use of computers by students. These reduce efficiency of integrating technology in education. The following paper focuses on the various problem students encounter while using computers and some of their solution. Problems that students face in regard to using computers as a learning tool can be classified into two. These are barriers and negative effects of using computers. There are five major categories of barriers. These are: (1) Emotions and attitudes (2) Declining faculties (3) Financial costs (4) Unfamiliarity with technology (5) Age-unfriendly instruction (6) Lack of relevance/motivation The following two tables show the major barriers of female students in using computers. Table 1: Major barriers of female students in using Source: Survey Report by Palfrey, J. & Gasser, U. (2008) p 447-472. The following two tables show the major barriers of male students in using computers. Table 2: Major barriers of male students in using computers Source: Survey Report by Palfrey, J. & Gasser, U. (2008) p 447-472. Emotions and Attitudes Emotions and Atti tudes are most frequent barrier for female students and the second most frequent for male students. A substantial proportion of students do not have an in-depth history of computer usage. Female students express this as fears. Students expressed a number of fears that they felt limited their use of computers: fears of the machine, of the unknown, and of learning, as well as lack of self-confidence. Some female students feel that use of computers is a whole new thing. There is fear of networking wires and possibility of tampering with the machine. Female students fear that they might lose their work by pressing wrong keys or maybe damage the software system by performing certain unintentional commands. On the other hand, male students express this barrier as unknown void, anxiety and frustration, and lack of self-confidence. This barrier is quite common to students who do not have an in-depth history with usage of computers. A computer machine is perceived to be complicated and diffi cult to master its use in academic purposes by students (Montgomery, 2009).This limits the extent of comfort and reliance in computers in education. Declining Faculties Faculties can be said to be one of the inherent cognitive or perceptual powers of the mind or physical body. This problem is highly experienced by senior students who are 50 years and above. There are problems of lack of ability to concentrate, catch on quickly or to absorb information explained to them. This adversely affect what the students retain

Alcatel-Lucent merger Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Alcatel-Lucent merger - Coursework Example Lucent feared Alcatel’s takeover and thus the deal came to a halt on May 29, 2001. It is still not discovered that which company begin the negotiations but Lucent ended them on the basis that Alcatel was not agreeing on equals. Looking into the case, I believe may be the negotiations styles were not accurate for the scenario. According to Anatomy of a merger by James C. Freund, there are two ways of negotiating which let you go no where. One is doing what comes naturally to your mind, not thinking about the other party and doing and saying only what you want. Credibility and sincerity should be prominent in your negotiations and this style of doing what naturally comes to your mind is the worst style of negotiating. The second style is practice what I preach. You should not just read books for the sake of reading them. Practicing all negotiation styles in your merger is important. In 2006, the companies decided to merge again. Co operations begin to build up between the two co mpanies. According to Paris and Murray Hill, N.J., April 2, 2006- Alacatel and Lucent Technologies announced that they are together as an ultimate merger now which is unbreakable. They are creating a genuinely global communications key provider for the entire world with the widest wire line, wireless and services collection in the market. The major reason of this merger is to increase revenues and profits based on market chances for the next-generation services, applications, and networks. The joint company’s scope, scale and global competencies will improve the long term value for customers, shareowners and employees. The contract, which was endorsed by the boards of directors of each company, will build upon the corresponding strengths of every company to generate a global market leader in the alteration of upcoming wireless, wire line and congregated networks. The shareholders in France accepted the merger in September 2006. The CEO of Alcatel invested 10.6 billion euro ($ 13.5 billion then) into the business at that time and remarked that Alcatel- Lucent â€Å"has no equivalent today or in future†. The combined sales of the company mounted to $25 billion in that year and it was believed that Alcatel-Lucent will be the biggest merger of communications in the world with its ongoing success. But mergers aren’t easy to handle! Conflict of interest, different cultural backgrounds and different attitudes towards work were the causes of divergence between the chief executives of both companies. Things start to take a pessimistic turn. Patricia F. Russo (chief executive of Lucent) also believed that things would start to work better for the both companies but they did not. Even though the regulatory hurdles were cleared in both U.S and European markets by the U.S State department and EU regulations but things didn’t take a positive turn. Both the CEO’s tried hard to cooperate with each other but was restricted by their French and American styles. According to an analyst, the corporate culture of Lucent’s clashed with Alcatel’s business model. In July 2008, Lucent’s CEO Patricia F. Russo resigned. She claimed that she could not get along with Serge Tchuruk, her fellow board member. He too resigned after some time. Both of the CEOs were not able to get along with each other. Even though the company official language was proposed to be English, Patricia spoke French as well to be conversant in the

The Pattern Matching Technique in Case Study Research Paper

The Pattern Matching Technique in Case Study - Research Paper Example Descriptive Case Study, pattern matching helps to determine its validity, on the condition that prior to data collection the predicted pattern of specific variables is defined. Moreover, pattern-matching being a predictive approach to intervention, it â€Å"specifies a post-intervention pattern of results/ incidents that would either show ‘effects’ or ‘no effects’†. In pattern matching, the data analysis phase begins at the preliminary stage of data collection. Testing the perceived patterns in the field is an advantage of this methodology. Data analysis would then consist of â€Å"pattern matching the collected evidence against the initially stipulated pattern†. For example, a case study conducted on educational reform can begin by conceptualizing some patterns regarding implementing improved curriculum and instruction, consequent redesigning of tests and assessments by basing them on the new curriculum and instruction methods, appropriately changed in-service opportunities for teachers, and also an altered preservice training system for new teachers. The researcher’s Case Study would determine whether this pattern of educational conditions had actually occurred, and the extent to which the conditions were clearly similar. In research, a pattern is an arrangement of occurrences, incidents, behavioral actions, or the outcomes of in terventions which occur as a series in time. Hypotheses are theories predicting a pattern of values of variables. In the pattern of a non-equivalent dependent variable design, the initially predicted value must be found for each element of a pattern of dependent variables. Another type is the pattern in a non-equivalent independent variables design, as derived from a typological theory. research validity.  

Sterilisation of a disabled person Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Sterilisation of a disabled person - Essay Example Such as stomach cramps, that she was suffering. Sarah also highlights that fact that Amanda has no realistic prospects of ever having children hysterectomy i.e. remove the daughters womb so as "to improve her quality of life† a number of gynaecologists are backing Sarah’s demands however various disabled rights group are horrified by he prospects of doctors removing Amanda womb "just because she is disabled they argue that she has "just as much right as anyone else to grow up with her body intact to have the opportunity to choose whether to give birth to her own children’s. Her human rights would be violated". 1) Introduce the relevant issues. I.e. is it appropriate to sterilise a minor without their consent. Briefly look at the relevance on the effect on the carers looking after someone disabled. Look at the nature of the operations it’s not without risk? And it’s not reversible. Also briefly look at the disabled rights. Brief mention on human rights also. 2) Main body of the assignment. Criticise the law. Also its â€Å"best interest test† critique it. Convenient arguments if the court declare it to be lawful, the whose convenience is it for. Absence of consent could also be discussed. Human rights on Eugenic( population) The issue of the sterilisation of children who are mentally handicapped has always been an emotive topic and one that is very controversial. Despite protestations by the parents of the handicapped child that they are acting in the best interests of the child many see this as a violation of the right of the woman to reproduce. In Re D (A Minor) (Wardship: Sterilisation) [1976] 1 All ER 326 an educational psychologist who had been concerned with the child’s welfare applied for a wardship order which was duly granted by the court. In this case the child’s mother had asked a hospital to sterilise her daughter as she was concerned that her daughter who had

Industrial Relations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Industrial Relations - Essay Example On the example of relevant studies and researches, a special attention is paid to the influence of globalization in LDCs’ manufacturing sector. 1. Introduction The modern phenomenon of globalization is a wide-spread issue for the discussion in numerous researches and studies. It cannot be denied that various dynamic phenomena are correlated with this background. The limits of different nations are blurred and it is appropriate to focus on specific criteria for development of different employment patterns, which differ from the ones, which existed previously. Actually, there are many different aspects of globalization and we will further focus on economic globalization. With respect to it, we found it necessary to define the phenomenon of economic globalization: â€Å"Economic globalization refers to the increasing interdependence of world economies as a result of the growing scale of cross-border trade of commodities and services, flow of international capital and wide and ra pid spread of technologies. It reflects the continuing expansion and mutual integration of market frontiers, and is an irreversible trend for the economic development in the whole world at the turn of the millennium1 † It can be surely claimed that the development of technologies and flow of international capital across different countries enable foreign markets to create a great number of new jobs. Employment goes at a full pace, but very often this process evokes numerous different reactions of the society. On the one hand, globalization has been gradually increasing in the world of economy and different changes happened to foster the processes of globalization. 2. Economic Globalization: Pros and Cons in the Manufacturing Industry of LDCs Let us focus on the economic globalization and its impact on less developed countries (LDCs). In this case we will see the following picture: tariff barriers for international trade became much lower and there is a coming process of a high -speed market development in the world. The world trade, goods and products are on the way of their constant expansion and development. As a result, the cost of transportation and communication around the world are expanding the laws of international regulations. Consequently, conditions of employment for the employees in different fields should be correlated with the options of investments and a free financial flaw. It was found out by Lee (1996) that â€Å"there  is  a  significant  current  of  apprehension over  the  implications  of  globalization  for  employment  and  income  inequality.On  the  face  of  it  this  is  difficult  to  reconcile  wih  the  voluntary  shift  towards  a more  open  world  economy  in  democratic  societies,  which  are  also  the  only countries  where  the  apprehension  is  voiced†2. Moreover, LDCs have many opportunities to follow credit process line of the government and the global society to improve their production. Less developed firms are encouraged and supported internationally. There are many winners in employment nowadays, but there are many losers as well. Globalization often leads to job losses, but at the same time it can create a number of interesting and prospective jobs. There are different patterns of global trade and employment generation is on the prospective edge of having many opportunities for development. Economic  globalization  has always intensified changes of employment patterns. This resulted

History of Guitar Essay Example for Free

History of Guitar Essay Music has always been a part of the world’s culture throughout the history. Way back thousands of years ago, people utilized their body parts such as their mouth, hands and feet, in order to create sounds. However, due to people’s inventiveness and resourcefulness, they have begun to use different materials that are part of their everyday life so the creation of musical instruments has begun. One of those discovered and invented instruments is guitar. This paper endeavors to present detailed information with regards to the history of guitar. First, it will provide a definition of the term ‘musical instrument,’ and its types. Then, it will also provide a definition of the musical instrument ‘guitar. ’ Second, it will trace and narrate its history. And lastly, it will reveal its benefits to the society. Furthermore, it will give a brief knowledge its contemporary status in the society. Musical instrument, traditionally, is any sound-producing material that comes from any culture, activated in any means, and is utilized for making what is universally and frequently known as â€Å"music. † It encompasses automatic or mechanical however it also includes recording or playback device (Rice). It is classified into different types namely: (1) idiophones, which consists of cymbals, triangles, gongs, castanets, bells, xylophones; (2) membranophones, which consists of drums, a skin or membranes is extended and stretched across a reverberating cavity; (3) chordophones or instruments that produce and make sounds by way of vibration of one or more strings stretched amidst two fixed points. It can be a guitar, lupe, harp, violin, cello; (4) aerophones which are blowing devices that use vibration of the air. These include trumpets, clarinets, flutes, bagpipes, whistle (qtd. n Wade 10). Guitar is a stringed instrument, which looks like the lute or the violin, however, it is bigger in size and has six strings: three of them are silk-covered silver wire and the other three are catgut (â€Å"Guitar†). It is a globally mobile instrument by which form, tonal textures and playing strategies and techniques are result of its appropriation. It is utilized in various locally specific musical contexts (Bennett and Dawe 1). It is made of wood, akin with lute, however, it has a more box-shaped resonator—the general characteristic of the instrument. All through the history, its strings are played by either a plectrum or a finger. It possesses a circular soundhole in its center (Wade 12). The modern English terminology for ‘guitar’ came from the Spanish term ‘guittara’ and was derived from Arabic and Latin terms ‘qitara’ and ‘cithara,’ respectively. These terms were derived from ‘kithara,’ and earlier Greek word, and from the Persian term ‘sithar’. â€Å"‘Sithar’ itself is related to the Indian instrument, the sitar† (â€Å"History of Guitar†). The history of guitar is traced hundred of years ago. It has been established along with other ancestor instruments known as lyres and harps, which are mentioned in the Old Testament, Mesopotamian long-necked lutes, string instruments delineated in ancient Babylonian and Egyptian art (Wade 13). The oldest famous representation of the instrument that displays all its important features is on a 3,300-year old stone carving of Hittite bard (â€Å"History of Guitar†) found at Alaca Hoyuk (Wade 13). Throughout the Middle Ages, three, four, five-string guitars do exist. The Guittara Latina, which has curved sides, is said and thought to have originated in Spain (â€Å"Acoustic Guitar History†). It is a product per se of a long and multifaceted history of various influences (â€Å"History of Guitar†). Renaissance is the chosen period that is said to be the suitable starting point of guitar because it is during this epoch that the instrument is already in relation to music (Turnbull 2). During this period, composers wrote most of the time in tablature (â€Å"Acoustic Guitar History†), a musical notation relatively different from the modern ones. Its page usually looked flamboyant, ornate and complicated but for musicians and instrumentalists, it has been a very practical, useful and a straightforward method and manner of transforming symbols into sounds (Wade 18). Nevertheless, in this period, the guitar never possessed the respect that the lute has because it has not been regarded as a serious instrument. The first publication for guitar was recognized to have come from Alonso Muddara’s â€Å"Tres Libros de Musica en Cifras para Vihuela. † Finally, the guitar commenced to attract instrumentalists hence; there had been an increase in publication and music (â€Å"Some Guitar History†). Italy became the center of guitar in 17th century. In the late 18th century subsequent to the addition of the sixth string, the Spanish school of guitar making flourished. In the era of 19th century, there was already an enhanced and improved communication and transportation that allowed the performers to journey around the world, thus, the guitar evolved to become a widely known musical instrument (â€Å"Acoustic Guitar History†). The aspects and dimensions of the modern classical guitar were established and founded by Antonio Torres, who works in Seville in 1850 (â€Å"History of Guitar†). Guitar music then became popular in Spain. The development in guitar that was done by Torres signified alterations in appearance. The modern guitar took the form of a broadened body, the waist curve was increased and the belly was thinned. An improvement with regards to its internal bracing was designed; single string courses were replaced by double courses and the machine head replaced the wooden tuning pegs (â€Å"Acoustic Guitar History†). By the end of the 19th century, the guitar has fallen out of favor. However, it was revived by Francisco Tarrega, who was known for his â€Å"Receurdos de la Alhambra. † He performed in public and chose to perform for his friends at his home. He wrote a technique on how to teach guitar. He also transcribed a myriad of musical pieces for guitar. He was also considered as the pioneer of playing guitar with fingernails; which evolved into a tradition (â€Å"Some Guitar History†). Most of the credit and recognition regarding the development of guitar was carried on to the Europeans. Today, steel-string acoustic guitars are developed by the Americans. In the early 20th century, when European emigrants arrived in America, a number of them are highly skilled musical instrument makers, which includes those specialists in the steel-stringed guitar. There are two kinds of production that have evolved—the flat-top guitar and the arch-top guitar (â€Å"Acoustic of Guitar History†). When guitar technology has finally led and made its way to the United States in the early 19th century, it was Charles Friedrich Martin, a guitar maker who migrated in New York in 1833, who initiated it. In early 1900s, the Martin Company produced and made larger guitar instruments yet still adhered and abided with the classic model designs, especially the Spanish guitar (â€Å"How a Guitar is Made: Background†). The lineage of the guitar is huge and arduous to trace especially because there is a partial misconception that the guitar is a direct successor of the lute. The lack of reputation and prominence of guitar in history is aptly due to the fact that it attracts little heed from good composers and musicians until the 20th century (â€Å"A Contextual Background†). The creation of guitar has been of vital importance in the field of music. It is a representation and embodiment of discovery, inventiveness, imagination and expression of performing intelligence and skill. The early guitar bestowed significant contributions during the Baroque period. The guitar and guitar ancestors took hold of the attention of folk culture and the middle class way back the Baroque era as well as the Classical period (â€Å"A Contextual Background†). The instrument represents an abstract idea, a mode of thinking with regards to sound and a mode of identifying and recognizing cultures. The guitar is a fundamental icon in American culture and other cultures around the world. There are several versions of stringed instruments that are crafted and created as distant away from Japan, and are developed into the orchestra. It also forms unique variations like the Sitar of India (â€Å"The Linage of Guitar Construction†). The growth of the guitar in the course of history is in a two-fold path. The technical progression and developments have been enthralling, fascinating and fundamental. Nevertheless, nourishing and developing that evolution and development has been the social element of guitar’s reputation and recognition. The mechanical alterations that have been demanded socially contributed to its better and louder instrumentation. Thus, there have been documentations on its development and journey. The guitar’s progression in the course of time is one of the mirrors that culture indeed changes over time. It evolves just like how the guitar evolves (Kentor and Michaels 10). The guitar is not just an embodiment of one’s culture and time. It is also a representation of the status of whoever owns it especially during the ancient times because most people in the middle class owned a guitar. Its development serves a reflection that people’s ingenuity, thinking and creativity do enhance and progress, alongside with the culture that they belong. The creation of guitar has helped a lot in the music industry because it accompanies and produces sound even without the use of electricity. It is purely mechanical because only the fingers or a pick is used in playing. However, the invention of electric guitar has contrasted that fact. Compared to the classic mechanical guitar, it produces louder and better sound. On the other hand, the discovery and creation of electronic music, music that can be created even without musical instruments at hand—purely digital, has given way to the somewhat â€Å"death† of guitar industry. It is now being taken for granted little by little even though there are still some who take hold of its importance and still utilize it in composing and crafting new musical pieces.

Assess The Contribution Of Summitry To Diplomacy Politics Essay

Assess The Contribution Of Summitry To Diplomacy Politics Essay Summit diplomacy is an irreversible phenomenon that is not alien to contemporary diplomacy. It has been an ongoing practice as far back as diplomatic activity has been in practice. Summit diplomacy has its roots in the new diplomacy i.e. diplomacy in the democratic age between open governments (Dunn, 2004, p. 140a). It has evolved and developed over the centuries and as such, much attention is given to it. Recently there has been an upsurge on it which is due to the fact that it is no longer done on low level but now common place and referred to as high level diplomacy. Amongst other advantages, Leguey-Feilluex states that the primary advantage of summits is that it involves the leaders that are directly responsible for making policies (2009, p. 294). In as much as it has been celebrated for its benefits, there is a lot of controversy surrounding this practice; diplomacy at the summit level has been highly disdained by diplomats because of the claim that it relegates their roles. It has also been said that it could be a waste of time, effort, and resources. Even though summitry can be detrimental to diplomacy if not properly organised, I believe that if judiciously prepared, summits will come to be appreciated and accepted as a method of conducting diplomacy. This essay is an attempt to explore or delve into the depths of the concept of summitry diplomacy, and in this process unearth some information about it, also to examine the contribution of summitry to diplomatic practice. What is Summitry In contemporary times, a method of conducting foreign relations is evolving, as times go by, this method is waxing stronger and is known summit diplomacy and this has brought in its wake, a wave of arguments for and against this new global development in international relations. However it is a misunderstanding in history to regard it as a new phenomenon (Plischke, 1974, p. 43) since it has been in practice far longer than it has been popular. The earliest record of the usage of the term summitry came into play when Sir Winston Churchill popularised it in the 1950s by introducing it into international parlance. Summitry as a term was therefore coined by Winston Churchill, Even as a term that was coined then, it is however a point to note that the practice has been in for a longer time. In fact, it dates back to the fifteenth century. This fact begs the question; if it is a practice that is not new, why is it being popular in these times? The best answer to that would be because of the way summitry is being conducted. These days- it is more frequent and at a higher level (Dunn, 1996, p. 4b). Summitry is a process wherein political leaders take diplomacy into their own hands instead of leaving it to the professional diplomats; leaders, heads of state, prime ministers, presidents, monarchs, all come together to discuss issues of foreign relations. According to Plischke, summit diplomacy may be: interpreted as the determination and publicizing of foreign policy and the management of international affairs at the chief of state or head of state level (1967, p. 43). I would like to point out that in order to effectively conceptualise summitry, it will be appropriate to take into consideration different features of summits; the first is the fact that summits are organised between countries of a higher class, i.e. between groups of the same class, secondly, summitry is for reaching agreements. In addition, a summit can be differentiated from other forms of direct personal diplomacy among political leaders such as correspondence, telephone conversations or direct talks e. g. video conferencing (Melissen, 2004, p. 188). Over the years, summitry has evolved greatly and it is due to so many factors of which I will be pointing out some of them. Dunn, states that summitry grew out of crisis, especially political crisis, when governments and states were facing tough times; the need to meet, dialogue and reach agreements on very salient issues with other heads of government arose, governments needed to deal with crisis and decided to take matters into their own hands. Summitry then, had to do with a bit of urgency (1996, p. 5b) Another important factor for the development of summit diplomacy was growing interdependence of the world economy; the world has economically grown closer as financial markets, corporations, and banks have all become multinational, and because resources are unevenly scattered and no country possess all the resources they need to survive, therefore countries must come together to trade in order to sustain their economy. For example, petroleum is shipped from Africa to major energy-importing regions such as the United States, thus the growth of global economic interdependence, and consequently the spread of summit diplomacy (Dunn, 1996, p. 12b). Dunn also states that summitry has also developed as a result of technological inventions, breakthroughs and advancement. Technology has progressed at an accelerated rate and has been profound during the twentieth century which has greatly improved the pace and method of conducting foreign relations. The revolution in technology transformed the very nature of diplomacy itself which meant heads of state, foreign ministers and other important officials could now make intercontinental trips in such a short time as opposed to long trips which sometimes took days or weeks. Also, in the aspect of communication, mobile phones, video conferencing and other electronic means has increased the rate with which diplomatic negotiations take place (1996, p. 6b). Furthermore, summitry developed due to the importance of the media and public opinion in international affairs. This development has sought the need for political leaders to become much more transparent in their dealings. The summit is thus not only the expression of the direct political ties between the leader and his people; the political leader is also perceived as the diplomat-in-chief (Melissen, 2004, p. 194). It may not be easy to measure the success of summitry; however we can assess the contribution of summitry by analysing the functions of types of summitry to diplomacy. These summits can be classified into three; the serial summit, the ad hoc summit and the exchange of views summit. These different types of summitry serve different purposes. The function which the summits may promote include; promoting friendly relations, clarifying intentions, information gathering, consular work, and negotiation (Berridge, 1995, p. 84a). I intend to enumerate the contributions of summitry to diplomacy through the different types of summits. Serial Summit and its Contribution The serial summit is part of a regular series of meetings. There are numerous examples of serial summits, some of which include the Franco-German summits, G7/G8 summits (which are a contributory factor in international discourse,) ASEAN summits, US-AU summits. Another good example of a serial summit is the Western economic summits which have been held annually since 1977 at Rambouillet (Barston, 1988, p. 105) The serial summit is particularly useful for promoting friendly relations and negotiation; whether serial summits are frequent or separated by a year or more, and whether they last for hours or days, they may contribute to a successful negotiation between parties concerned (Berridge, 1995, p.85a). Firstly, they educate heads of governments without international experience; no head of government wants to make a fool out of themselves among other leaders, therefore they are motivated to work hard and develop themselves concerning matters of importance to avoid failure at the summit level; and they cannot afford to be ignorant. Secondly, they make package deals easier (Berridge, 1995, p.85a). Since it involves the interaction of political leaders who have maximum authority as policy makers, deals are therefore easier to seal appropriately and in a forthright manner. Another function of the serial summit is that it speeds up and sustains diplomatic momentum in the sense that it sets deadlines for the completion of an existing negotiation between the parties and it breaks any deadlocks in negotiation due to the fact that all the important policy makers are together. An example of a deadline was in a negotiation was December 1990 at the Brussels ministerial meeting in GATTs Uruguay Round (Berridge, 1995, p.153a). Serial summits are also useful for gathering information about other countries and their leaders, clarifying intentions, creating awareness, generating understanding and enhancing cooperation amongst members of the summits. The best example of the serial summit is the Franco-German summit which started in 1963 and since then, meets at least twice a year (Berridge, 1995, p.86a) Ad hoc Summitry and its Contribution Another type of summit is the ad hoc summit which is usually a one-off meeting convened to address a particular issue e.g. to address a crisis, although it might end up being the first of a series of other meetings and they usually generate more publicity than the serial summits. Special cases of ad hoc summits are working funeral which is a funeral of a major political figure that is attended by high-level delegates from all over the world (Berridge, 2002, p. 180b). Examples of ad hoc summits are the Cocaine summit, the Sino American summit, and the Camp David summit. Ad hoc meetings are very useful for imposing deadlines on a negotiation process. A case in point is the Camp David Summit of 1978, which was between Israeli, Egyptian and American leaders and lasted for the whole of thirteen days. Dunn states: It was deliberately described by President Carter as a last chance effort to breathe new life into the failing Middle East peace process which had started so dramatically with the initial meeting between Sadat and Begin. The singularity of this opportunity undoubtedly contributed to its final success (2004, p.153a). Ad hoc meetings are more suitable for symbolic purposes and they also provide a forum for the promotion friendly relations and fostering and leaders become familiarized with other heads of governments and states. An example of such a meeting is the encounter of President Clinton of the United States and President Hafez al-Assad of Syria in Geneva in January 1994. The two-day Ibero-American summit held in Mexico in July 1991 is also an ad hoc meeting that was aimed at promoting the growth of economic and cultural ties between its participants (Berridge, 2002, p.179b). Furthermore, funeral summits have contributed immensely to diplomatic affairs by carrying out the function of diplomatic signalling. According to Berridge: at the funeral of the Emperor Hirohito of Japan in Feb 1989, it was recorded that representatives from 160 countries including 14 representatives of royal families, 55 heads of states, 11 prime ministers were in attendance (2004, p. 172c). Firstly, it is a discreet opportunity for leaders to come together to meet on pressing issues at stake and also a disguise for low key exchange of views between contenders on how to manage conflict. Funeral summits are of diplomatic significance particularly if it is the funeral of a current president or head of state this is because it serves as an important opportunity for political lobbying. Berridge states that: the funeral is almost certain to be the first occasion for both foreign friends of the deceased to confirm that the new leadership remains wedded to their relationship and for foreign rivals to explore the possibility of a change of heart (2002, p. 180b). .High Level Exchange of Views and its Contributions Finally, there is the exchange of views meeting. This is a situation whereby heads of government visit series of countries on a foreign tour. It is usually relevant when a newly elected leader has come into power to educate and familiarize them on the international scene. (Berridge, 2002, p.181b) This summit also promotes more friendly relations between their countries and others. For example, in September 1994, the British prime minister went on a week-long trip to Abu Dhabi, South Africa and Gulf and other places where he visited the King of Saudi Arabia, and had friendly encounter with him (Berridge, 2002, p.181b) Finally, the exchange of views meeting can be very useful for promotion of trade and in taking up serious cases of maltreatment of nationals (Berridge, 2002, p.181b). Advantages of Summits Summits have symbolic importance for example the Moscow summit of 1972 was a representation of the new relationship of superpower dà ©tente. The Vienna summit of 1979 was also a way of symbolizing that there was a better relationship. For example, the Cold War summits held in Paris, November 1990, was used to advertise the end of disputes between the parties involved and to symbolize peaceful relations (Dunn, 1996, p.248c). In relation, summitry is a useful tool for promoting foreign and domestic propaganda; attracting the attention of domestic, foreign and global audience to some issues. It gives the idea that the government is busy doing something about an issue domestic or global, especially in democracies. An example of summit propaganda is the United Nations Summit on Climate Change in New York on 22 September 2009 and in Copenhagen Denmark, December 2009 to create momentum on greenhouse gas emissions (Dunn, 1996, p.249c). Summits also provide the opportunity for governments to come together and gather information about their counterparts, this helps to break down barriers of mistrust and suspicion, and thus they can build up friendly and trustworthy relationships with them. As a consequence of such high level meetings by top leaders that are responsible for government action, issues deliberated on produce efficient results in comparison (Dunn, 1996, p.248c). Furthermore, summitry serves an agenda setting function; this is an opportunity for global issues of overarching political or strategic importance to be brought up to the forefront and addressed effectively. Dunn states that it is useful for: elevating issues to the top of the international agenda and for dealing with problems of with speed and authority (1996, p. 251c). A case in point is the G20 summit in Huntsville, Ontario, Canada, June 25-27 of 2010 which will set global economic agenda. Disadvantages of Summits In as much as summitry has lots of advantages, and has contributed positively to the practice of diplomacy it has also faced oppositions from different angles. Over the years, the usefulness of summitry has been in question; it is surrounded by so many controversies and most of the major opposition arise from diplomats who claim that it meddles in their affairs and which has a demoralizing effect on them and other elements of the diplomatic service (Plischke, 1967, p.48). Another argument is that politicians are not professionally trained for diplomatic jobs; therefore they lack the know-how, the skills, and the patience to carry out that function effectively which consequently produces unfruitful results. Some of them might be misinformed, or may not know enough about a particular subject and this may actually limit the capacity of which they can discuss specific issues in detail (Dunn, 1996, p.254c). Furthermore, there is the challenge of lack of knowledge of the other partys point of view or miscommunication; this is especially common when leaders from different cultural backgrounds are involved in a summit and interpreters have to be used. As Leguey-Fellifeux states: Clashes of personality may complicate summit interaction, but cultural misconceptions are a more likely occurrence, as chief executives have less experience in cross cultural communication (2009, p. 302). Negotiations in circumstances like this might prove very difficult. In addition there is also the risk that agreements that were reached during such meetings are difficult to disapprove because they were sealed by the heads of governments themselves (Dunn, 1996, p.257c). Furthermore, summitry has been seen as a waste of time, effort and resources. It takes a lot of time to prepare, and attend a summit and it also takes a lot of resources to make sure that a summit is successful. Resources that could be used for other important things will be used to pay for security, meals, and luxury accommodation for these politicians. An associated disadvantage is the risk of travel, accidents could occur, and lives could be lost, also, illness could develop due to causes such as the weather and all sorts (Dunn, 1996, p.261c). CONCLUSION Over the years summitry as a method of conducting foreign relations has come to stay a part of the diplomatic process for better or worse. Even though it is risky, it has indeed contributed immensely to so many foreign issues at stake. Due to its multifaceted agenda, it has provided opportunities for package deals across different policy areas that it is now almost impossible to imagine conducting diplomacy without holding summits (Melissen, 2004, p.195). In as much as it has contributed positively to diplomacy, it can also be fatal if wrongly carried out as I have enumerated earlier. According to Dunn: it may create misunderstanding, cause unintended offence and sow the seeds of mistrust (1996, p.264c). Hence, it should be carefully strategized instead of eliminating it totally as a method of conducting foreign relations. Summit talks have to deal with specific issues rather than general atmospherics. According to Berridge et al: for talks to be meaningful they have to be well prepared; decisions to be taken at the summit have to be formulated in detail already in previous negotiations at subordinate levels (2001, p.201c). If prepared and conducted properly and with caution, summitry promises high satisfaction. Despite all criticisms, summitry has become the preferred means of international dialogue.

Evaluating Public Interventions that Impact Market Prices

Evaluating Public Interventions that Impact Market Prices What measurement tools can we use to evaluate public interventions that affect market prices? How might these be used to explain the concept of transfer efficiency? (9 Marks) (a) To justify public intervention it is necessary to identify the market failure that the intervention is expected to correct. Public goods; externalities; competition failures; asymmetric information; and missing markets can all be contributing reasons why the private economy is unable to achieve efficiency. A problem that exists is that regardless that market failures are known they are rarely measured. Despite this the impact of public expenditure depends on the precise extent of the gap between social and private benefit. Public spending is necessary during market failure but not always a sufficient means. The application of a tax, for example, may be much more suited than public spending to correct a negative externality, offsetting the social and private cost difference. Another example is the enforcement of anti-trust regulation, which while breaking down monopolies and correcting competition does not alternatively limit the commodity at issue. However, different tools can be used to measure the affect that public intervention has on market prices. The measured price gap between domestic and world prices is a crucial input into discovering what may happen under different assumptions about policy reform. Estimated per tons and tariffs have an equivalent on producer price as measuring the gap between domestic and world price. In measuring the entire global state of affairs on world agriculture, calculating world prices without the addition of policies may be most appropriate. But the purpose of evaluating agricultural policies is to compare interventions made by governments while pursuing their political objectives. The world price does hold the most importance as it ultimately determines the effort the government makes to ensure a certain level of domestic price is maintained. In terms of agricultural policy reform, the different assumptions about the changing policy reform and trade barriers show changes in both domestic an d world prices, narrowing the price gap. However the ability to change world price lies in the dependence of other countries following the same reform. On a smaller level the measurement of farm support consists of adding two elements; the difference between domestic and world price for commodities multiplied by the amount produced and budgetary transfers. Tariffs, quotas and other restrictions on imports, also subsidies on exports together with government in intervention to boost domestic prices, can create gaps between domestic and world price. To find the producer support estimate (PSE), multiply the gap in prices by the amount of domestic production. The consumer support estimate (CSE), is negative because it is the consumer food subsidies amount minus the implicit tax on consumers from market price support. Therefore, the total support estimate (TSE) is found by adding the PSE, the taxpayer cost of consumption subsidies and the provision of general services, and subtracting import tariff receipts. The measurement tools can used to explain the concept of transfer efficiency. â€Å"Transfers are payments from one agent in the economy to another agent for which there is no corresponding flow of goods and services.†(1a.) Thus the aforementioned measures can determine how appropriately used these transfers are in relation to improving the market economy. To evaluate agricultural policy the objective of the analysis of transfer efficiency â€Å"is to relate the combined taxpayer and consumer costs to the additional income which farmers receive.†(1b.) To put transfer efficiency in to terms, it is the net income gain to farmers that comes from one unit gross transfer cost to consumers and taxpayers. Therefore, transfer efficiency ranges from zero to one. While there is no measurement tool that is greatly superior to compare the transfer efficiency of market price support, these measurements help emphasize the trade-offs. Broadly defined, transfer efficiency focuses on delivering assistance to targeted recipients in the most efficient manner possible. Thus, any estimation of the gains from policy reform needs to take into account the relation between economic intervention and the political response that intervention produces. Policy reform is greatly linked to transfer efficiency and support estimates are grand determinants in studying the success or failure of interventions. (b) Compare and contrast the welfare effects of three of the following interventions designed to raise farm incomes: (i) Import tariff (ii) Deficiency payment (iii) Fertiliser subsidy and (iv) Production quota. What assumptions underlie your analysis? (b) The welfare effects of the following interventions designed to raise farm incomes: (i) Import tariff: Tariffs can have an effect on many different parties including the importing country and the exporting country and the consumers, producers, and Government from both the importing and exporting countries. The importing country consumers of the product suffer due to the increase in the domestic price of both imported goods and the domestic substitutes. This reduces the amount of consumer surplus in the market. Producers in the importing country have a positive gain as the price increase on the domestic market increases producer surplus in the industry and increases output, raises employment and increases profit. Tariff revenue is given to the Government and its benefit is detrimental on how the Government spends it, such as using it to support many government-spending programs, which most likely benefit the public. The impact on the country is determined by totaling the gains and losses to consumers, producers and the government. The overall effect is a positive tra de effect, a negative production distortion and a negative consumption distortion. Since there are both positive and negative elements for the importing country the national welfare effect can be positive or negative. Exporting consumers of the product become better off as the import tariff decreases domestic price and raises the amount of consumer surplus in the market. Exporting producers suffer as the price in their own market decreases along with the producer surplus in the industry. Given that the importing country imposes the tariff there is no effect on the exporting Government revenue. The overall welfare effect for the country is determined by adding the gains and losses to consumers and producers. This effect consists of a negative trade effect, a negative consumption distortion and a negative production distortion, which produces a reduction in national welfare for the exporting country, as all the effects are negative. Adding the national welfare effects in both the importing and exporting countries creates the effect of the import tariff on the world welfare. The overall effect is negative as both the importers and exporter’s consumption and production distortion are each negative. Therefore, an import tariff results in a reduction in world production and consumption efficiency, as the total of the overall losses in the world outnumber the overall gains. (ii) Fertilizer Subsidy: A subsidy for fertilizer is sometimes paid to offset the disincentive effects of low producer prices. Market price support has an effect on the price-ratio between a product and a production input like fertilizer. The expansion in fertilizer subsidy has created greater use due to a distortion of the real price of fertilizer in turn to lower effective pricing. This has resulted in external costs such as a difficulty in monitoring and controlling agricultural pollution. Fertilizer subsidies can be justified, especially in developing countries, in order to maintain soil fertility and to conflict against soil erosion and deforestation. In the 1980’s fertilizer subsidies for countries were estimated at an astounding $2.8 billion, since then this number has rapidly decreased. A need to reduce fertilizer use can be attributed to a generation of health effects. In the world market effects of subsidizing agricultural inputs such as fertilizer raise market barriers and hinders competition, which enables inefficient structures to be protected and maintained. Other negative factors include an indication that rich farmers adversely gain from agricultural subsidies. The welfare effects of an imposed fertilizer subsidy entail a benefit for consumers due to a lower price. Producers’ welfare is not necessarily determinable, as although their price has reduced so have farmers’ costs of production. To establish the effect this subsidy has had, one must be able to find the elasticity of the demand curve. If demand is inelastic, producers will experience a net loss. (1c.) The effect the fertilizer subsidy has had on the total welfare is accounted to the tax placed on the taxpayer. This is found by locating the reduction in the cost of the agricultural product to farmers compared to the new production of wheat produced. (iii.) Production Quota: Production quotas limit the level to which an industry and the individual producer can adjust to changing technical and market conditions. Farm prices are being heavily affected through the rapid growth in supply in contrast to demand, which lowers farm prices and therefore reduces farm incomes. This is a major reason why farmers may seek a production quota to control the rising supply production. When a quota is enforced, if the price falls the supply to the right of the quota becomes inelastic as the producer is not allowed to increase supply. The welfare effects of a production quota are negative on consumer surplus. However, for producers to benefit after a quota the demand curve must be inelastic towards the original price. Also, we must understand that the extent to which structural change is withheld varies based upon the ease of transfer of quota rights. A trade in quota rights between producers may be constrained or there may be blemishes in the quota market. Producers may also try to lease or sell their production quota rights, creating a capital value. However the problems that arise in the future income to farmers may be reduced due to an inability to reform these production quotas. (1d.) The way that quotas are put into effect is to proportionately cutback both the most and least efficient producers but this would also increase the economic costs. To minimize economic costs trade must be encouraged within quotas. This will allow the suppliers whom prevail as the most efficient to purchase quota rights producers that lack efficiency as it will be better served if used by the more efficient of the producers. Under a free market approach, these inefficient producers will be forced from the market, creating an overall more efficient economy and then the production quota will be removed. However, due many restrictions the market is rarely a free and open environment and the welfare effect of a production is generally a negative outcome as a deadweight loss has been created. The assumptions that underlie this analysis are that all of these interventions are created under fair markets. That these markets can all compete together and there is no discrimination between countries. That these interventions reflect a change within each country that is comparable to its contrasting effect within the world economy. That these interventions can be subjectively held accountable upon each individual, for example, that the production quota can be accurately held accountable upon each farmer. Also, fair trade is allowed where there is no bias among trading parties. The major assumption is that when an intervention is put into place the effect will be equally felt by each producer and likewise by each consumer. Also, that the economical practices under which the markets are operated are nominally similar throughout each country. References: Lecture 15. Measuring Costs and Transfer Efficiency of Agricultural Price Policy. ALSTON, J.M. and B.H. HURD (1990), â€Å"Some Neglected Social Costs of Government Spending in Farm Programs,† American Journal of Agricultural Economics www.internationalecon.com www.farmfoundation.org

How to join a site :: essays research papers

Amazon.com: Music: Shut Up - [ Traduzca esta pà ¡gina ]Shut Up, Kelly Osbourne. ... 7 of 9 people found the following review helpful:. 5 out of 5 stars Shut Up -- Kelly Osbourne, December 4, 2002 ... www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ tg/detail/-/B000071AZB?v=glance - 66k - En cachà © - Pà ¡ginas similares Amazon.com: Books: Shut Up and Sing: How Elites from Hollywood ... - [ Traduzca esta pà ¡gina ]Amazon.com: Books: Shut Up and Sing: How Elites from Hollywood, Politics, and the UN are Subverting America by Laura Ingraham. www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ tg/detail/-/0895261014?v=glance - 93k - En cachà © - Pà ¡ginas similares [ Mà ¡s resultados de www.amazon.com ] Shut Up Lyrics - Black Eyed Peas - [ Traduzca esta pà ¡gina ]Shut up Just shut up Shut up [3x] Shut it up, just shut up Shut up ... The CopyRight of Black Eyed Peas - Shut Up Lyrics belongs to the writer or performer ... www.lyrics007.com/ Black%20Eyed%20Peas%20Lyrics/Shut%20Up%20Lyrics.html - 19k - En cachà © - Pà ¡ginas similares The Stranger - Home - [ Traduzca esta pà ¡gina ]JUST SHUT UP. Nobody gives a shit what anti-war or pro-war writers think. Really. So shut up. That goes double for poets. Shut the hell up, poets. ... www.thestranger.com/2003-02-20/feature.html - 22k - En cachà © - Pà ¡ginas similares Bill O'Reilly Wants You To Shut Up - Also, Al Franken, Tom Daschle ... - [ Traduzca esta pà ¡gina ]Fox News channel talk show host Bill O'Reilly says "shut up" the way other people say "um." slate.msn.com/id/2087706/ - 36k - En cachà © - Pà ¡ginas similares SHUT UP AND SHOP - [ Traduzca esta pà ¡gina ]Australian graffiti artist with qtvrs, interactive shockwaves, and quicktime movies, all with the theme of world hunger. www.shutupandshop.wild.net.au/ - 1k - En cachà © - Pà ¡ginas similares shut up you fat whiner! - [ Traduzca esta pà ¡gina ]shut up you fat whiner! still fat, fuzzy and as bent as a dog's tail. (that's a3uaj mithil thail al-chalib if you're Iraqi) ... justzipit.blogspot.com/ - 67k - En cachà © - Pà ¡ginas similares SHUT UP letra (Black Eyed Peas)Black Eyed Peas Letras de mà ºsicas - Letras.mus.br. black-eyed-peas.letras.terra.com.br/letras/77508/ - 26k - En cachà © - Pà ¡ginas similares This is Shut UP! From UK Software. Automatic computer shut down or .

The Raven and Ligeia a comparison Essay examples -- English Literature

The Raven and Ligeia a comparison Although the two tales are presented in different literary forms the tales themselves deal with remarkably similar subject matter. So much so that it is possible to compare the style of each with but a little reference to the general themes of the two works. The Raven and Ligeia are both about loss. The narrators of both tales have lost the dearest thing to them, a woman of incomparable talents and beauty. That the loss of this woman has happened for different reasons does not matter for it is how this loss manifests itself in the lives of the narrators that provide the drama and the poignancy of the stories. In each we discover the narrator is dwelling upon that woman that he adored and in each we find the peculiar way in which they deal with this. In the Raven a man sits alone in his chamber reading ancient tomes trying desperately to keep his mind from thoughts of his lost Lenore. But he hears the sounds from without the chamber that could be perhaps the ghost of his beloved. It is this irrational hope and fear that the bounds of death can somehow be transcended and that he might once more speak with his love that begins to lead to his irrational behaviour. When the titular Raven makes it's appearance the narrator is worked into such a fever of imagination guilt and fear that he perceives the bird as some emissary from beyond. So it is that it's constant repetition of "nevermore" are taken as both confirmation that the spirit of Lenore lives on and denial of him to ever speak to her again. The narrator leaves us still locked with the bird projecting upon it his own feelings of self-loathing and hate. Ligeia on the other hand is a statelier version of the narrat... ...e thing he identifies with in his current situation. When after the raven appears to have refuted his fantasy of Lenore he finds that he hates the raven as an extension of himself and perhaps the raven is nothing more than the narrators metaphor for himself or at least some darker aspect of his mind. The main difference between the two tales is that while Ligeia is couched in very descriptive prose the Raven makes much more use of metaphor. That said the style of the poem is very much that of a rhyming tale and as such is also similar to the prose structure of the short story. In conclusion it should be noted that both are excellent attempts to tackle a difficult and provocative subject and they manage this in two similar but unique ways. It is the similarity, which lends them both power and the stylistic differences that mark them as being exceptional.

Definition of abnormality essay

Revision Notes- Abnormality Definition of abnormality * Failure to function adequately- An assessment of an individual whose disability prevents them from pursing normal goals and activities. Rosenhan and Seligman (89)-7 characteristics; Suffering- most abnormal individuals report that they are suffering Maladaptiveness- danger to self (usually occurs as a result of lacking relevant knowledge and skill) Vivid/unconventional behaviour- ways in which abnormal individuals tend to behave often differs substantially from most people.Unpredictability/loss of control- the behaviour of abnormal people is often very variable, uncontrolled and inappropriate. Irrationality/ incomprehensibility- others cannot understand why anyone would choose to behave in this way Observer discomfort- social behaviour is governed by a number of unwritten norms or rules of behaviour (e. g. not standing too close to someone while talking) Violation of moral/Ideal standards- behaviour may be judged ‘abnormal ’ when it violates established more standard Evaluation * Criticised as it depends heavily on subjective assessments- e. g. eople who engage in behaviour that is maladaptive may not consider themselves to be abnormal (adrenaline sports). * Does not sufficiently differentiate abnormal behaviour from behaviour that is non-conformist. * Deviation from social norms-Behaviour that violates implicit and explicit rules and moral standards of a given society. Evaluation * Norms not fixed-change over time. * Abnormal, eccentric or criminal? * Role of context including culture * Risk of abuse * Deviation from mental ideal health- A deviation from the ideal characteristic that people should possess if they are to live optimally. Marie Jahoda’s 6 characteristics; Small- Self actualisation People-Personal growth In-Integration America-Autonomy Poo-Perception of reality Everywhere-Environment mastery Evaluation * Criticised for being subjective as it may differ from person to person and there may be no agreement between people as to what constitutes normal or ideal mental health. * Culture bound by Western ideals of self-fulfilment and individuality (culture relativism) * Most people may fail on some criteria Biological Model * Assumes that psychological and behavioural abnormalities have biological causes. Biological causes include genes, infection, neuro-anatomy and biochemistry. * Genetic concept-supported by Kendler et al. (85)-relatives with schizophrenia and Gottesman (91)-Identical twins * Infection that gets into the brain can cause widespread damage and if the brain is damaged then a person may start to have abnormal experiences or to behave in abnormal ways. (Flu is linked with schizophrenia- (Barr et al. (90)). * Bio-chemistry- Brain relies on hundreds of different chemicals all being in the correct balance.These chemicals (neurotransmitters and hormones) are used to send messages round the brain and nervous system, too much or too little of them ca n cause the brain to function abnormally. Schizophrenia has been associated with an excess activity in the neurotransmitter dopamine. * Neuro-anatomy- illustrates that schizophrenia is cause by abnormality in the structure of the brain; these abnormality could be inherited. Concept supported by the case study of Phineas Gage. Evaluation * Criticised for being reductionist as it simplifies complex behaviour to its simplest form. Deterministic- As you have no choice over your behaviour or the development of a mental disorder. * Ethical issue –Labelling someone mentally ill as Szaz illustrates that apart from identified disease of the brain, most so-called mental disorders are really problems of living. * Objective- Based on mature biological science. Biological treatments; Drugs- for anxiety, depression and schizophrenia ECT- for severe depression Psychosurgery- for severe anxiety and obsessive-compulsive disorders. Evaluation Drugs-sometimes effective but side effect, might tr eat only symptom and ethical issues. * ECT- quick and sometimes effective, used to prevent suicide, mode of action unclear and ethical issues * Psychosurgery- used as last resort and controversial. Psychodynamic Model * Signifies the existence of the unconscious. * Psychological disorders are cause by emotional problems in the unconscious mind, the cause of these problems can be traced back to early childhood and the relationship between the child and parents is a crucial factor of mental health. 3 main part to the concept; * The Id- present from birth and is the pleasure drive. The Ego- present from the age of 2 and deals with reality by balancing out the ego and superego. The Superego- present from the age of 5 and is morality (knowing the difference between right and wrong). * Defence Mechanisms- operates at an unconscious level and help ward off unpleasant feelings (i. e. anxiety) or make good things feel better for the individuals. 8 types of defence mechanisms; Displacement-re directing repressed desiresSublimation- transforming aggressive and sexual desires into a socially acceptable expression Projection- Attributing your own acceptable impulses or characteristic to someone else Denial-denying what happen Repression-involves putting unacceptable thoughts and experience into the unconscious Reaction formation- where a person goes beyond denial and behaves in the opposite way to which he or she thinks or feels Rationalisation- involves supplying a logical or rational reason as opposed to the real reason. helps to protect our sense of self-esteem) Regression- Involves returning to a pervious stage of development. Regression is the giving up of mature problems solving methods in favour of child-like approaches to fixing problems to deal with stress. * Psychosexual stage- suggest that if you receive too much or too little at one of the stages you will become fixated at the stage and regress back to it in later life. Evaluation * Psychodynamic model has been criticised as it is unscientific in its analysis of human behaviour. Psychodynamic model has been accused for being sexist as it proposes behaviour difference between men and women, especially women’s inferiority , are due to biology and not social and cultural factors, and so the difference are fixed and unalterable. * Deterministic- leaving little room for the idea of personal agency (i. e. free will) * Ethical issues- people are not to blame for their own abnormal behaviour, but may be partially responsible for the development of abnormal behaviour in their offspring. Treatment * Psychoanalysis- for anxiety disorders Dream analysisFree association-involves reading a list of words (e. g. mother, childhood etc. ) and the patient immediately responds with the first word that comes to mind. It is hoped that fragments of repressed memories will emerge in the course of free association. Ink blots * Found by Freud, who believed that people could be cured by making conscious their unconscious thoughts and motivations, thus gaining insight. * Psychoanalytic psychologist see psychological problems as rooted in the unconscious mind, typical causes include unresolved issues during development or repressed trauma. Evaluation The case study of Anna O (repressed traumatic experience of her father’s death) and Little Hans (young boy who developed a phobia for horses) supports the theory of psychoanalysis. * Psychoanalysis may speed up the rate at which clients get better. * The nature of Psychoanalysis creates a power imbalance between therapist and client that could raise ethical issues. * Psychoanalysis – tends to be expensive and time-consuming * Psychoanalysis is generally considered more appropriate for treating neurotic disorders such as anxiety, but it is less suitable for patients with psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia. Behaviourists’ criticism- behavioural approach to psychopathology think the abnormal behaviour is the disorder and so it is better to concentrate on changing the problem behaviour rather than spend time digging into distant childhood conflicts. Behavioural Model * Behavioural model approach focuses on the ‘behaviour’ of an individual in order to explain psychological problems. * Assumptions of the model- abnormal behaviour is maladaptive and what was learnt can be unlearnt by the same principle. Explains the emergence of specific, maladaptive, or dysfunctional behaviour such as phobia, anxiety and depression, through the process of classical conditioning, operant conditioning and social learning. * Classical conditioning- consist of three stages; Before conditioning- the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) produces an unconditioned response (UCR) in an organism. This stage also involves another stimulus which has no effect on a person and is called the neutral stimulus (NS). During conditioning- during this stage, a stimulus which produces no response (i. . neutral) is associated the U CS at which point it now becomes CS. After condition-the conditioned stimulus has been associated with the unconditioned stimulus to create a new conditioned response. * Watson and Rayner study on Little Albert supported the conditioning theory. Before conditioningLoud noise Fear/crying(UCS) (UR)During conditioning Loud noise (UCS) +Fear/crying (UCR)White rat (NS)After conditioning White rat (CS) Fear/crying (CR)| * Social learning theory-Behaviours are learned through imitation, that is, by observing others.Observational learning is particularly powerful for those who model the behaviour are seen to be rewarded. Some phobias such as fear of spiders are learnt by observing other people showing fear when they see spider. Mineka et al. study on monkey illustrates that fear is not genetically inherited as parents of the young monkeys who already feared snakes did not automatically acquire this fear themselves. However, when some monkeys did observer their parent showing fearful reactio n they did acquire an intense and persistent fear. Evaluation Behavioural model focuses on dealing with patients’ maladaptive behaviour derived or caused by their prior conditioning or reinforcement history. * Rejects role of genetic inheritance and the role of other psychological (cognitive and psychodynamic) factors in the development of psychological disorders. * Criticised for being reductionist- reduces all behaviour to simply learning by association, reinforcement, punishment and modelling. * Deterministic- complex human behaviour includes thinking, language, reasoning, problem solving, and feeling will probably need alternative explanations. Much evidence for behaviourism comes from laboratory studies with animal. To suggest this is demeaning to some people, they point to human behaviour as being governed more by thinking i. e. cognitive and emotional factors. * Abnormal behaviour is determined by external environmental factors e. g. conditioning history and social and cultural factors, so individuals cannot be held responsible for their behaviour. Treatment * Classical conditioning includes systematic desensitization and aversion therapy. * Systematic desensitization- a behavioural therapy used to treat phobias and anxieties.After being trained in relaxation techniques, the phobic person is gradually exposed to situations that are more and more anxiety-provoking, until the fear response is placed by one of relaxation. For example: Dog causing Fear Needs to be changed to Dog causing Calmness and relaxation (pleasant feeling) * Aversion therapy- a behavioural treatment that aims to rid the individual of an undesirable habit (e. g. smoking) by pairing the habit with unpleasant (aversive) consequences. For example: Emetic (drug) SickEmetic +smoke Sick Smoking Sick (aversive response) * Flooding is also another way to treat phobias. Flooding consist confronting the feared object or situation head on and not in small manageable steps. The idea is to flood or overwhelm the client with fear because after a time the fear will inevitably subside helping the client realise they won’t die and that really have nothing to fear. This procedure must only be carried out with the approval of the client. Token economy-a behavioural technique that reinforces appropriate behaviour by awarding tokens that can be exchanged for goods or privileges. Evaluation * Research support for systematic desensitization but implosion and flooding are quicker. * Some research support but ethical concerns over aversion therapy. * Research support for token economy but risk of institutional bias and token learning. Cognitive Model * Cognitive model stress the role of cognitive problems such as irrational thinking in abnormal functioning. Irrational thoughts are the causes for abnormality; if the thinking is changed the mental illness should be able to be cured. * Difference between the behavioural model and cognitive model is that behavioural model doe s not take the mental process into consideration. * Ellis (1962) called irrational thoughts ‘cognitive errors’. * Two processes that leads to irrational thinking; mustabation and awfulizing. * Mustabation is when a person stresses that they ‘must’ do something * Awfulizing is when a person over-generalises by saying e. g. â€Å" I didn’t go university so I must be stupid†. This theory can be challenged by questioning the assumption that people who don’t go university are stupid and give example of successful people that didn’t go university e. g. Alan Sugar. * Cognitive distortions are another example of faulty thoughts processes, and include over generalisation, magnifications and minimisation. * Generalisation- refers to learning to reach a conclusion about the world based on evidence from a single events * Magnification- the tendency to magnify small events, usually setbacks, so they appear more serious that they really are * Minimisation- the tendency to turn something significant. Becks research supports this concept as he carried out a research which involved 48 adults with primarily mild or moderate intellectual disability. They participated in semi-structured interview, twice approximately 16 weeks apart, as did an additional 12 adults diagnosed with depression. Participants reported on depressed mood, the cognitive triad, as measured by views of the self, the world and the future, hopelessness and self-esteem. The finding showed that the cognitive triad inventory for children displayed adequate psychometric properties in this sample. It correlated with depressed mood, and individuals diagnosed with depression have significantly higher scores on the cognitive triad inventory for children than those with no psychiatric diagnoses. * A negative cognitive did not predict depressed mood 4 months later, but the inverse relationship where depressed mood predicted a later negative cognitive triad approached statistical significance. * Certain childhood and adolescence experience (such as the loss of a parent or criticism from teacher) leads to the development of a cognitive triad consisting three interlocking negative belief.These concern the self, the world and the future, and cause people to have distorted and constricted outlook on life. The beliefs lead people to magnify bad, and minimise good experiences. The cognitive triad is maintained by several kinds of distorted and unreasonable interpretation of real events that contribute to depression. Treatment * Cognitive behavioural therapy is a therapeutic approach in psychology that is intended to help individuals learn to cope with anxiety inducing or stressful situation by rationally addressing faulty cognition and the ways in which it leads to inappropriate and self-defeating behaviour.